The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain (2000) Durham Thesis, Durham (2024)

'Tabernae in Context', - Chapter II (2003) in The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 8-20

The purpose of this chapter is to place the tabernae of Roman Britain into their social context within Britain and the wider Roman empire. Although it is quite possible to consider Roman Britain in isolation from other parts of the empire, this would place Britain out of context from the rest of the empire which must have had a major impact and influence on the province. To do this in a meaningful and systematic fashion the meaning of the term taberna and its origin in Italy will be discussed. After this, an impression of contemporary attitudes to shops and tabernarii will be explored by an analysis of the surviving ancient sources. As the literary sources in Roman Britain are limited, Italian material will be used. Although there are difficulties with this, the literary sources at least hint at how people may have related to tabernae and tabernarii in their society in Italy, and by implication in Roman Britain. The scant literary evidence for tabernae in Roman Britain will then be discussed. The following chapters will focus upon the material evidence for tabernae in Roman Britain.

'Conclusion', - Chapter XII (2003) in The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 146-149

This work has been concerned with creating a credible reconstruction of the tabernae of Roman Britain from the actual buildings. This has been achieved by a concentration on the production of retail space to describe and explain the phenomenon of the taberna in its contemporary form. Based upon this, the manner in which tabernae reflect the social and economic environment of the province of Britain can then be observed. It has been the consensus throughout this thesis that commercial buildings are more sensitive and responsive to the economic and social climate than monumental structures. The study of tabernae has largely been ignored at the expense of public buildings or prestige dwellings. This would seem to be very much at odds with the view point of Reece, who states in his important discussion on The end of Roman Britain that 'the use of strip-buildings as an index of commercial activity is far too insensitive an indicator of 'town life'. …The building of strip-buildings is not in itself demonstrative of commerce'. 1 However, this is a statement that is applicable to any building type in Roman Britain. In contrast to public buildings, tabernae must have accounted for a large part of the built up areas in towns. They would have been a very visible, familiar and active part of urban life. With their open fronts, goods on display and commercial activities which spread onto the street, they must have left as much an impression of urbanisation as monumental structures. Retailing was an essential and integral component of the urban environment, and when examined, presents a more sensitive picture of the social and economic life of the settlements of Roman Britain than public buildings. Tabernae were a major element of the urban environment, and retailing was an activity with which the inhabitants would have had frequent dealings. A comparative approach to the study of the nature, size and location of tabernae in the settlements of Roman Britain can give clues to the broader issues concerning social identity and function. This integrated approach to the building patterns of Roman towns provides a more genuine view of urban development than consideration of a single building type or class of structure in isolation, and this is why the study of tabernae is significant. The results gained by this analysis of tabernae are far from ideal, but are certainly more representative of the evolution of towns in Roman Britain than the examination of any one building type. This is perhaps the most interesting by-product formulated during the development of this study on tabernae. In fact, tabernae were probably as much of a feature of romanization as any programme of public buildings. Tabernae in the Roman empire had a very ancient history, evolving from the earliest times in Italy. The Italian tabernae became the model for tabernae that were built throughout the empire, and their construction went hand in hand with the expansion of Rome. Tabernae were a Roman import into Britain and nothing of this nature seems to have existed in pre-Roman Britain. Although many tabernae were probably 1 Reece 1983, 150 owned and operated by settlers from other parts of the empire, many native Britons would have lived and worked in tabernae, and the impact on their lives must have been significant. Contemporary attitudes to tabernae and tabernarii in Italy varied, from the disdain of the social élite, to the pride of those who lived and worked within. Although there is no indication of the way in which tabernarii were regarded in Roman Britain, it is possible that a similar variety of attitudes existed, but perhaps with a higher level of acceptance. Regardless of the manner in which tabernae and tabernarii were viewed by their contemporaries, they were an important element of the urban framework. We have seen that the epigraphic evidence for tabernae and tabernarii in Roman Britain is sparse and any discussion on the rôle that tabernae or tabernarii played within Romano-British society must rely upon the surviving archaeological remains. Excavations have revealed that Britain was a province that had a great diversification of structures, from the simplest of strip-buildings, to elaborate basilicas. The purpose and function of tabernae had an influence on the type of building plan. Contemporary plans for these utilitarian buildings have not survived and were probably only crude drawings, if indeed they existed. They are simple in design, and a taberna was so uncomplicated and malleable as an architectural unit that it could be adapted to almost any purpose. It is clear that the taberna-strip-building provided inhabitants with a great deal of control over what could be done with limited space, without undue modification. It could develop from a retailing outlet of one or two rooms, to comprising part of a more evolved dwelling. The taberna-strip-building form is likely to have been a development from an attempt to insert as many structures as possible into an important retail location. As a simple architectural form tabernae could evolve and be adapted by the addition of appendages to the back of the building, or by the amalgamation of neighbouring property. This common evolution clearly represents a higher level of prosperity for tabernarii and taberna owners and a willingness to express this in the construction and adaptation of larger and more expansive premises. Tabernae plans changed and grew as the lives of their users changed and the economy and society of Britain developed. The great number of strip-buildings in the towns of Roman Britain clearly emphasises the commercial attraction of the early settlements. However, there is little evidence of any corporate or organised retail planning above that which was shown by the accumulation of capital by individual retail owners. Without doubt, the taberna-strip-building plan was a typical feature of the urban settlements of Roman Britain, which had evident similarities to shops in the rest of northwestern Europe and Italy. The taberna was a very successful building form that was regional only in detail. The taberna plan was arguably the most adaptable of the entire spectrum of multipurpose building types created by Roman architecture.

Taberna Formae', - Chapter III (2003) in The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 21-38

One of the most important matters to be discussed is the form and plan (forma) of tabernae, and to relate them to structures in other regions of the empire. In Britain, structures from the Roman period mostly survive only in plan. As such, the layout of a taberna on the ground is the most useful interpretative tool to examine the development of tabernae in the major settlements of Roman Britain. The plan is very significant because it represents the horizontal projections of a building and determines the arrangement of rooms. These will be discussed in the forthcoming chapters. This chapter will explore some of the socio-economic factors that determined the choice of ground plan and the way in which tabernae, as a form, developed and evolved over time. The purpose is to examine tabernae in their entirety, that is not just spatially but also temporally, to understand how tabernae interact with their environment. This is not a simple task, as it cannot be assumed that form ever follows function, even though this is one of the most important assumptions that archaeologists use to interpret buildings. This is not meant to be dismissive of the scholarly work carried out by archaeologists, who often have only limited material on which to base their interpretation, but merely to point out that the function of a building cannot really be anticipated by form. Regrettably, the archaeological evidence is often not subtle enough to adequately identify the function of a building beyond any doubt.

'Taberna Economics', - Chapter X (2003) in The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 119-129

This is a speculative attempt to explore the topic of taberna economics, based primarily on the evidence of the previous chapters. It is not an endeavour to impose a modern abstract economic system upon antiquity, but an attempt to show that an economy existed that had rules and regularities of its own, giving it a measure of predictability. These rules may never be defined, but as is the case today, there is no one universal law of economics. In fact, a consensus has not been reached on the nature of economics in antiquity, which Hopkins describes as an ‘academic battleground’ (Finley 1979, 142). The Roman economy is a complicated system to understand or interpret and any attempt to do so is inevitably highly controversial and contentious (Pucci 1983, 113).

'The Function and use of Space in Tabernae', - Chapter V (2003) in The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 57-80

Buildings are the living space of people. The manner in which a structure is arranged can indicate a great deal about how its inhabitants viewed their world (Scott 1990, 152). While many crafts and trades must have been practised in tabernae, at times it can be difficult to determine specifically what these practices were. As census returns or any form of official enumeration are non-existent and tombstones naming specific occupations are rare in Roman Britain, knowledge of the economic activity of any settlement is primarily based on those industries that have left discernible traces on the ground. This is made even more complex as the changing commercial and productive uses of tabernae can make it even more difficult to determine function from the surviving fragmentary evidence of ovens, hearths and possible vats. This chapter will consider the evidence for the number of possible activities which took place within tabernae. It should not be seen as an exhaustive survey of the economic activities and productive rôle of tabernae, but as a summary of some of the main taberna occupations for which good archaeological evidence of their existence remains.

'Taberna Counters', - Chapter VI (2003) The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 80-91

The most distinctive features of the known tabernae of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Ostia are the taberna counters, doors and porticoes. It was amongst these amenities that the real activities of the 'retail arena' took place. The features of the shop were the most important elements of the 'taberna-house' as it was through these features that the building gained its identity. Without these traits, most of the evidence for tabernae would be lost. Given the constraints imposed by the limited extant remains of Roman Britain, a complete reconstruction of the retail arena cannot be made. As a consequence, comparisons must be made with surviving standing examples. The excellent standing remains of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Ostia enable a hypothetical reconstruction of these activities to be discussed. Although there is a great distance between Britain and Italy, many similarities can be found. Britain was part of the Roman empire, and its buildings and the way in which they were designed and functioned reflect this. Perhaps the most distinctive and visually imposing feature of a taberna is its counter. Given the limited extant remains of Roman Britain it is perhaps wisest to initially discuss the surviving remains of taberna counters in Italy, and then to examine the evidence for their use in Roman Britain.

'Construction Techniques', Chapter IV (2003) in The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 39-56

The general aim of this publication is to interpret the existing excavated and recorded evidence for shops and workshops in Roman Britain in order to give an approximate reconstruction of the tabernae in the province. This chapter will examine the types of materials used in the building of tabernae, their methods of construction and the development of these over time. This analysis of construction techniques attempts to answer two important questions; how the tabernae were constructed and who built them. The study of building construction focuses on the most fundamental consideration of how people executed the structures that provided them with shelter and a viable environment for their goods, institutions and lifestyle. Thus, the focus is on this pragmatic operation and any concern with aesthetic design is incidental. Every attempt has been made to be as inclusive, comprehensive and systematic as possible in the study of constructional techniques in Roman Britain. However, the amount of evidence has necessitated a certain amount of selection and much of the following work will concentrate upon the larger settlement sites of Verulamium, Colchester and, more particularly, London, where much of the detailed analysis of building materials has taken place.

'Taberna Doorways', - Chapter VII (2003) in The Taberna Structures of Roman Britain. British Archaeological Report (British series) 356, John and Erica Hedges, Oxford: 91-100

The doorway to any Roman dwelling had a very important rôle in defining the residents’ status and the way in which those outside would treat them. Doorways that belonged to tabernae, with their wide entrances opening on to the street, were one of the most distinctive features of the Roman street. They punctuated someone’s peripheral vision as they progressed along the street. The importance of doorways is demonstrated by the fact that they have been divided into two classes by Packer; those that belonged to tabernae and those that did not.1 The plans of these tabernae have been described as being non-traditional. They had a wide entrance to the street, which did not lead into an atrium through a deep corridor, which was known as a fauces (Packer 1971, 21). However, this is a misleading characterisation as taberna entrances are as frequent as structures with fauces, and belonged to a tradition of their own. It should also be noted that a wide doorway, although very common, was not always necessary in a taberna. A great number must have had quite ordinary doorways at that their entrance, although lacking a fauces, and were similar in width to a doorway in a domestic dwelling.

The towns and settlements of Roman Britain have produced a rich variety of building types and many of these structures have been interpreted as tabernae (shops or workshops). Generally, when the buildings of Roman communities are considered, the concentration is usually on the more prestigious structures, such as public buildings. These buildings are important, but they account for only a small part of the built up area in any settlement. Tabernae were a feature of every type of settlement, large or small, official and unofficial, and as such their existence must be seen as an essential, rather than a marginal, feature in the social and cultural life of Roman Britain. There has been a steady development in our understanding of tabernae from the earliest excavations in the late nineteenth century to the present day. However, it is surprising that despite the scholarly work that has been carried out on Roman Britain in the past a systematic study of shops and workshops has not been produced with the exception of a posthumously published paper by Richmond entitled 'Industry in Roman Britain' (1966, 76-86). This provides a summary of the tabernae, or more particularly workshops, excavated up to that time and attempts to place tabernae into their contemporary framework, emphasising the similarity in function of the tabernae in Roman Britain to those found in Italy. This paper builds upon the work of Richmond and brings together some general observations on the shops and workshops of Roman Britain. Building layout It goes without saying that the archaeological remains of Roman Britain cannot compare with the spectacular ruins that have survived in Pompeii and Herculaneum in terms of scale, height and preservation. However, sufficient evidence survives in the form of ground plans to demonstrate that there was a great diversity of structural types in Britain from simple single roomed buildings, to multi-roomed tabernae, to tabernae that were attached to large complex domestic buildings. As such, the ground layout of a taberna is the most useful interpretative tool to examine the development of tabernae in the major settlements of Roman Britain. The plans of the early tabernae seem to have been relatively simple in form and are one of the most common types of structure that can be seen during the Roman settlement of Britain. In their apparently simplest configuration, tabernae consist of utilitarian, relatively long, narrow, rectangular plots, set perpendicular to the street. These are often known as 'strip-houses' or 'strip-buildings' and are an urban feature known throughout the empire (Stambaugh 1988, 174). Tabernae could comprise a single room, but more usually, they were initially composed of two rooms. The layout of the internal divisions of tabernae almost habitually follow a pre-set pattern with the room or rooms that were closest to the street used as a shop or workshop, with the chambers behind functioning as living or store areas (Todd 1970, 121; Wacher 1995, 66-7). This characteristic of tabernae in Italy led Boëthius to term this form of architecture as 'shop-houses' or 'taberna-houses' (Boëthius 1934, 164). The twofold function of tabernae also existed in Roman Britain, and probably contributed greatly to the evolution of a form of architecture consisting of a long narrow rectangular building. This sequence sometimes becomes somewhat distorted with later developments but, as was practical, the front